IGNOUMATIC

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) was a German philosopher whose idealistic system of thought left a profound influence on 19th-century political and historical philosophy. One of his most significant contributions is found in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History, where he presents history not merely as a sequence of…

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), a French aristocrat, historian, and political thinker, is most celebrated for his classic work Democracy in America (1835, 1840), in which he analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of American democracy. Another key contribution is his posthumously published The Old Regime and the Revolution (1856), where he…

The British philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), a successor of Jeremy Bentham and a leading figure in 19th-century liberal thought, is renowned for refining and humanizing utilitarianism. In his seminal work, Utilitarianism (1863), Mill diverged from Bentham’s quantitative approach to pleasure by introducing a qualitative dimension to human happiness. Among…

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was a pioneering English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer, best known as the founder of classical utilitarianism. His philosophical system laid the foundation for a consequentialist ethical theory where the morality of actions is judged by their utility, that is, their ability to produce pleasure or prevent…

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment, is renowned for his radical critique of modernity and civil society. His political philosophy, particularly expressed in his works Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755) and The Social Contract (1762), sought to explore…